The Direction of an Individual's Motivation Can Be Channeled to Benefit ________.

What you'll learn to practise: Draw various theories of motivation

We talked a little bit about what motivation is and what information technology looks like inside an organization. To exercise that, we used Victor Vroom's expectancy framework, a model that attempts to dissect and explain employee functioning past distilling it downward to its most basic level.

The expectancy framework is just one of many models that have been developed over the years. Since the industrial age, scientists have been examining what motivates people to perform in employment situations. None of them take it all incorrect, only none of them have information technology all right. They'll continue to attempt, we're sure, considering a lot is at pale for organizations, and situations modify every day.

In this unit, we're going to take a await back at how we got to where we are now, and how nosotros can apply that today, domestically and abroad.

Learning Outcomes

• Explain the function of the Hawthorne effect in management
• Listing the various levels of needs in Maslow's bureaucracy
• Summarize the changes to Maslow'southward hierarchy of needs in Alderfer'southward ERG theory
• Describe how employees might be motivated using McClelland's acquired needs theory
• Differentiate between Theory X and Theory Y
• Explain the departure betwixt intrinsic and extrinsic motivators in Herzberg'southward two-factor theory

The Hawthorne Consequence

During the 1920s, a series of studies that marked a modify in the management of motivational and managerial theory was conducted by Elton Mayo on workers at the Hawthorne found of the Western Electric Company in Illinois. Previous studies, in particular Frederick Taylor's work, took a "man equally machine" view and focused on means of improving individual performance. Hawthorne, however, set the individual in a social context, arguing that employees' operation is influenced by piece of work environs and coworkers equally much as past employee ability and skill. The Hawthorne studies are credited with focusing managerial strategy on the socio-psychological aspects of human behavior in organizations.

The following video from the AT&T athenaeum contains interviews with individuals who participated in these studies. It provides insight into the way the studies were conducted and how they inverse employers' views on worker motivation.

The studies originally looked into the effects of physical conditions on productivity and whether workers were more responsive and worked more efficiently under certain environmental weather, such every bit improved lighting. The results were surprising: Mayo found that workers were more responsive to social factors—such equally their managing director and coworkers—than the factors (lighting, etc.) the researchers set out to investigate. In fact, worker productivity improved when the lights were dimmed again and when everything had been returned to the way information technology was before the experiment began, productivity at the manufactory was at its highest level and absence had plummeted.

What happened was Mayo discovered that workers were highly responsive to additional attention from their managers and the feeling that their managers actually cared about and were interested in their work. The studies too found that although financial incentives are important drivers of worker productivity, social factors are equally important.

Practice Question

There were a number of other experiments conducted in the Hawthorne studies, including one in which 2 women were chosen as exam subjects and were then asked to choose four other workers to join the test group. Together, the women worked assembling telephone relays in a separate room over the course of five years (1927–1932). Their output was measured during this time—at kickoff, in hush-hush. It started two weeks before moving the women to an experiment room and connected throughout the written report. In the experiment room, they were assigned to a supervisor who discussed changes with them and, at times, used the women's suggestions. The researchers then spent 5 years measuring how dissimilar variables affected both the grouping'south and the individuals' productivity. Some of the variables included giving two five-minute breaks (after a discussion with the group on the best length of time), and then changing to two ten-minute breaks (not the preference of the group).

Changing a variable usually increased productivity, even if the variable was just a change back to the original condition. Researchers concluded that the employees worked harder because they thought they were being monitored individually. Researchers hypothesized that choosing one's ain coworkers, working as a group, being treated as special (equally evidenced by working in a carve up room), and having a sympathetic supervisor were the real reasons for the productivity increment.

The Hawthorne studies showed that people'due south work operation is dependent on social issues and task satisfaction. The studies concluded that tangible motivators such as monetary incentives and good working conditions are mostly less of import in improving employee productivity than intangible motivators such every bit meeting individuals' desire to belong to a grouping and be included in decision making and work.

Practice Question

Need-Based Theories

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Human motivation can exist divers equally the fulfillment of various needs. These needs can encompass a range of human desires, from bones, tangible needs of survival to circuitous, emotional needs surrounding an private's psychological well-being.

Abraham Maslow was a social psychologist who was interested in a wide spectrum of human psychological needs rather than on private psychological problems. He is best known for his bureaucracy-of-needs theory. Depicted in a pyramid (shown in Effigy 1), the theory organizes the different levels of homo psychological and physical needs in order of importance.

Figure 1. Maslow'southward hierarchy of needs is illustrated here. In some versions of the pyramid, cerebral and aesthetic needs are besides included between esteem and cocky-actualization. Others include some other tier at the top of the pyramid for self-transcendence.

The needs in Maslow'southward hierarchy include physiological needs (food and vesture), safety needs (job security), social needs (friendship), self-esteem, and self-actualization. This hierarchy can exist used by managers to better sympathize employees' needs and motivation and address them in means that lead to high productivity and task satisfaction.

At the bottom of the pyramid are the physiological (or bones) man needs that are required for survival: nutrient, shelter, h2o, sleep, etc. If these requirements are non met, the torso cannot go on to part. Faced with a lack of nutrient, love, and safety, most people would probably consider food to be their virtually urgent need.

Once concrete needs are satisfied, security (sometimes referred to as private safety) takes precedence. Security and safety needs include personal security, fiscal security, and wellness and well-beingness. These first ii levels are of import to the physical survival of the person. In one case individuals have bones nutrition, shelter, and condom, they seek to fulfill higher-level needs.

The third level of demand is social, which includes beloved and belonging; when individuals have taken intendance of themselves physically, they can address their need to share and connect with others. Deficiencies at this level, on account of neglect, shunning, ostracism, etc., can impact an individual's ability to form and maintain emotionally pregnant relationships. Humans need to experience a sense of belonging and acceptance, whether it comes from a large social group or a small network of family and friends. Other sources of social connectedness may be professional person organizations, clubs, religious groups, social media sites, then forth. Humans need to dear and be loved (sexually and non-sexually) by others. Without these attachments, people can be vulnerable to psychological difficulties such equally loneliness, social anxiety, and low. These conditions, when severe, can impair a person's ability to accost basic physiological needs such every bit eating and sleeping.

The fourth level is esteem, which represents the normal human want to exist valued and validated by others, through, for case, the recognition of success or status. This level as well includes self-esteem, which refers to the regard and acceptance one has for oneself. Imbalances at this level can result in depression self-esteem or an inferiority complex. People suffering from depression self-esteem may observe that external validation by others—through fame, celebrity, accolades, etc.—only partially or temporarily fulfills their needs at this level.

At the top of the pyramid is cocky-actualization. At this phase, people experience that they have reached their full potential and are doing everything they're capable of. Cocky-actualization is rarely a permanent feeling or state. Rather, it refers to the ongoing need for personal growth and discovery that people take throughout their lives. Cocky-actualization may occur subsequently reaching an important goal or overcoming a item claiming, and it may be marked by a new sense of cocky-conviction or delectation.

Practice Question

Alderfer'south ERG Theory

Clayton Paul Alderfer is an American psychologist who developed Maslow's bureaucracy of needs into a theory of his own. Alderfer's ERG theory suggests that there are 3 groups of core needs: existence (E), relatedness (R), and growth (Thou)—hence the acronym ERG. These groups align with Maslow'due south levels of physiological needs, social needs, and self-actualization needs, respectively.

Existence needs concern our basic material requirements for living. These include what Maslow categorized every bit physiological needs (such every bit air, food, water, and shelter) and safe-related needs (such as health, secure employment, and property).

Relatedness needs have to practice with the importance of maintaining interpersonal relationships. These needs are based in social interactions with others and marshal with Maslow's levels of love/belonging-related needs (such every bit friendship, family, and sexual intimacy) and esteem-related needs (gaining the respect of others).

Finally, growth needs depict our intrinsic desire for personal development. These needs align with the other portion of Maslow's esteem-related needs (self-esteem, self-confidence, and achievement) and self-actualization needs (such every bit morality, inventiveness, problem-solving, and discovery).

Alderfer proposed that when a certain category of needs isn't beingness met, people will redouble their efforts to fulfill needs in a lower category. For example, if someone's self-esteem is suffering, he or she will invest more endeavour in the relatedness category of needs.

Practice Question

McClelland's Acquired Needs Theory

Psychologist David McClelland's acquired-needs theory splits the needs of employees into three categories rather than the two nosotros discussed in Herzberg's theory. These three categories areachievement, affiliation, and power.

Employees who are strongly achievement-motivated are driven past the desire for mastery. They prefer working on tasks of moderate difficulty in which outcomes are the result of their endeavor rather than luck. They value receiving feedback on their work.

Employees who are strongly affiliation-motivated are driven by the want to create and maintain social relationships. They enjoy belonging to a group and want to feel loved and accepted. They may not brand effective managers considering they may worry as well much near how others will feel almost them.

Employees who are strongly power-motivated are driven past the desire to influence, teach, or encourage others. They enjoy work and place a high value on subject field. However, they may have a zippo-sum approach to grouping work—for one person to win, or succeed, another must lose, or fail. If channeled appropriately, though, this arroyo can positively back up group goals and aid others in the group feel competent.

The acquired-needs theory doesn't claim that people can be neatly categorized into one of three types. Rather, it asserts that all people are motivated past all of these needs in varying degrees and proportions. An private'southward balance of these needs forms a kind of contour that can be useful in creating a tailored motivational paradigm for her. Information technology is of import to note that needs practice non necessarily correlate with competencies; information technology is possible for an employee to be strongly affiliation-motivated, for example, simply still be successful in a situation in which her amalgamation needs are not met.

McClelland proposes that those in superlative management positions by and large have a loftier need for power and a low demand for amalgamation. He likewise believes that although individuals with a demand for accomplishment can make skilful managers, they are not generally suited to beingness in height management positions.

Practice Question

McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y

The idea that a manager'due south attitude has an impact on employee motivation was originally proposed by Douglas McGregor, a management professor at the Massachusetts Plant of Technology during the 1950s and 1960s. In his 1960 volume, The Man Side of Enterprise, McGregor proposed two theories past which managers perceive and address employee motivation. He referred to these opposing motivational methods every bit Theory X and Theory Y management. Each assumes that the manager'south part is to organize resource, including people, to all-time do good the company. Still, across this commonality, the attitudes and assumptions they embody are quite different.

Theory 10

Co-ordinate to McGregor, Theory X management assumes the following:

• Piece of work is inherently distasteful to almost people, and they will attempt to avoid work whenever possible.
• Virtually people are not ambitious, have little desire for responsibleness, and adopt to be directed.
• Most people have little aptitude for creativity in solving organizational problems.
• Motivation occurs but at the physiological and security levels of Maslow's bureaucracy of needs.
• Most people are self-centered. Equally a outcome, they must be closely controlled and oft coerced to attain organizational objectives.
• Most people resist modify.
• Well-nigh people are gullible and unintelligent.

Essentially, Theory Ten assumes that the primary source of employee motivation is monetary, with security as a strong second. Under Theory 10, one tin take a hard or soft approach to getting results.

The difficult approach to motivation relies on coercion, implicit threats, micromanagement, and tight controls— essentially an surround of control and control. The soft approach, however, is to be permissive and seek harmony in the hopes that, in return, employees will cooperate when asked. However, neither of these extremes is optimal. The hard approach results in hostility, purposely depression output, and extreme wedlock demands. The soft arroyo results in a growing desire for greater reward in substitution for diminished piece of work output.

It might seem that the optimal approach to human resource direction would lie somewhere between these extremes. However, McGregor asserts that neither approach is appropriate, since the bones assumptions of Theory Ten are incorrect.

Drawing on Maslow's hierarchy of needs, McGregor argues that a demand, in one case satisfied, no longer motivates. The company uses monetary rewards and benefits to satisfy employees' lower-level needs. Once those needs accept been satisfied, the motivation disappears. Theory X management hinders the satisfaction of higher-level needs because information technology doesn't acknowledge that those needs are relevant in the workplace. As a upshot, the merely style that employees can attempt to come across higher-level needs at piece of work is to seek more compensation, so, predictably, they focus on budgetary rewards. While money may not be the most constructive way to self-fulfillment, it may exist the only way available. People will use work to satisfy their lower needs and seek to satisfy their higher needs during their leisure time. Still, employees can be most productive when their piece of work goals marshal with their higher-level needs.

McGregor makes the indicate that a control-and-control environment is non effective because information technology relies on lower needs for motivation, only in modern society those needs are generally satisfied and thus are no longer motivating. In this state of affairs, one would expect employees to dislike their work, avoid responsibility, accept no interest in organizational goals, resist modify, etc.—creating, in effect, a self-fulfilling prophecy. To McGregor, a steady supply of motivation seemed more than likely to occur under Theory Y direction.

Theory Y

The higher-level needs of esteem and cocky-actualization are ongoing needs that, for most people, are never completely satisfied. Equally such, it is these higher-level needs through which employees can best exist motivated.

In potent dissimilarity to Theory X, Theory Y direction makes the following assumptions:

• Piece of work can exist equally natural as play if the conditions are favorable.
• People will be self-directed and creative to meet their piece of work and organizational objectives if they are committed to them.
• People will be committed to their quality and productivity objectives if rewards are in identify that address higher needs such every bit self-fulfillment.
• The capacity for creativity spreads throughout organizations.
• Nigh people can handle responsibility because creativity and ingenuity are common in the population.
• Under these weather, people volition seek responsibility.

Under these assumptions, there is an opportunity to align personal goals with organizational goals by using the employee's own need for fulfillment as the motivator. McGregor stressed that Theory Y management does non imply a soft arroyo.

McGregor recognized that some people may not accept reached the level of maturity causeless by Theory Y and may initially demand tighter controls that tin can be relaxed as the employee develops.

If Theory Y holds truthful, an organisation tin apply the post-obit principles of scientific management to ameliorate employee motivation:

• Decentralization and delegation: If firms decentralize control and reduce the number of levels of direction, managers will accept more than subordinates and consequently need to delegate some responsibility and decision making to them.
• Chore enlargement: Broadening the scope of an employee's job adds diverseness and opportunities to satisfy ego needs.
• Participative management: Consulting employees in the determination-making process taps their creative chapters and provides them with some control over their piece of work surround.
• Performance appraisals: Having the employee set objectives and participate in the process of self-evaluation increases appointment and dedication.

If properly implemented, such an environment can increase and continually fuel motivation every bit employees work to satisfy their college-level personal needs through their jobs.

Practice Question

Herzberg'due south Two-Factor Theory

American psychologist Frederick Herzberg is regarded every bit one of the neat original thinkers in management and motivational theory.Herzberg prepare out to decide the upshot of mental attitude on motivation, by only asking people to depict the times when they felt really practiced, and really bad, well-nigh their jobs. What he plant was that people who felt good about their jobs gave very different responses from the people who felt bad.

The results from this inquiry form the basis of Herzberg's Motivation-Hygiene Theory (sometimes known as Herzberg'south "2 Factor Theory"). Published in his famous commodity, "One More than Time: How do Y'all Motivate Employees," the conclusions he drew were extraordinarily influential, and still class the boulder of expert motivational practice near one-half a century afterwards. He'due south especially recognized for his 2-factor theory, which hypothesized that are two dissimilar sets of factors governing chore satisfaction and job dissatisfaction:  "hygiene factors," or extrinsic motivators and "motivation factors," or intrinsic motivators.

Hygiene factors, or extrinsic motivators, tend to represent more tangible, basic needs—i.due east., the kinds of needs included in the existence category of needs in the ERG theory or in the lower levels of Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Extrinsic motivators include status, job security, bacon, and fringe benefits. It's of import for managers to realize that non providing the appropriate and expected extrinsic motivators volition sow dissatisfaction and decrease motivation amongst employees.

Motivation factors, or intrinsic motivators, tend to represent less tangible, more emotional needs—i.e., the kinds of needs identified in the "relatedness" and "growth" categories of needs in the ERG theory and in the higher levels of Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Intrinsic motivators include challenging work, recognition, relationships, and growth potential. Managers need to recognize that while these needs may fall outside the more traditional scope of what a workplace ought to provide, they can exist critical to strong private and squad performance.

The cistron that differentiates two-cistron theory from the others we've discussed is the role of employee expectations. According to Herzberg, intrinsic motivators and extrinsic motivators have an inverse human relationship. That is, intrinsic motivators tend to increase motivation when they are present, while extrinsic motivators tend to reduce motivation when they are absent. This is due to employees' expectations. Extrinsic motivators (e.chiliad., bacon, benefits) are expected, so they won't increment motivation when they are in place, but they will cause dissatisfaction when they are missing. Intrinsic motivators (east.m., challenging work, growth potential), on the other hand, can be a source of additional motivation when they are available.

If management wants to increase employees' job satisfaction, they should be concerned with the nature of the work itself—the opportunities information technology presents employees for gaining status, assuming responsibleness, and achieving self-realization. If, on the other hand, management wishes to reduce dissatisfaction, then it must focus on the chore surroundings—policies, procedures, supervision, and working weather condition. To ensure a satisfied and productive workforce, managers must pay attention to both sets of task factors.

Practice Question

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Source: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wmopen-organizationalbehavior/chapter/theories-of-motivation/